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Acute and Chronic Conditions
ABSTRACT
Background: Numerous child health status measures have been developed, ranging from assessments of physical and mental health to activity continuums. Our objective was to report the regional distribution of physical morbidity among children in Manitoba.
Methods: Using Manitoba's population-based prescription and health care data for 1998/99, the prevalence of children with lower respiratory tract infections, four chronic conditions (asthma, cardiovascular disease, Type 1 diabetes mellitus and seizure disorders) and physical disabilities, including spina bifida and cerebral palsy, was determined for 12 Regional Health Authorities and 12 Winnipeg Community Areas, ranked by a measure of population healthiness, the premature mortality rate (PMR). Prescription rates were also reported by neighbourhood income quintile, derived from census data.
Results: Hospitalization for lower respiratory tract infection was highest in infants (6%) and increased with successive decreases in neighbourhood income or in the population healthiness of a region. On the basis of a physician diagnosis or prescription drug for asthma, 10% of school-age children had asthma. Asthma treatment rates in northern Manitoba were substantially lower than in Winnipeg. Treatment rates for cardiovascular conditions, Type I diabetes and seizure disorders approached 1% in adolescents and there were no regional differences in the distribution of these conditions. The prevalence of physical disability was highest in northern Manitoba.
Conclusion: A minority of Manitoba children suffer from chronic and serious acute health problems in childhood, but the burden of illness is not evenly distributed among children.
The 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child proposes a broad definition of health which describes a child's right to adequate circumstances for physical, mental, spiritual, moral and social development.1 Numerous child health status measures have been developed over the years, ranging from simple scales assessing physical and mental health to activity continuums which assess the impact of illness on normal social role performance. What measures of child health should be used? The premature mortality rate has been accepted as a population health measure, but childhood mortality is an uncommon event, limiting its usefulness as a measure of health status.2 Morbidity is more common in childhood, and includes physical, developmental, psychological, emotional and behaviour problems.
Physical conditions such as chronic illness and disability impose a considerable morbidity burden for children, in terms of interference with sleep, play and school, and dependency on medications or technology.3,4 Almost 30% of children with asthma, cardiovascular conditions or diabetes are limited in their usual activities; the prevalence of activity limitation doubles in children with seizure disorders.3,5 Over 80% of children with asthma, diabetes or seizure disorders take medications, and miss on average one week of school per year. Up to 90% of children with physical disabilities are limited in their usual activities. Recurrence of acute conditions such as lower respiratory tract infections also interferes with quality of life. This paper describes the regional distribution of the following physical conditions among Manitoba's children: 1) lower respiratory tract infections, 2) four chronic conditions (asthma, cardiovascular disease, Type I diabetes mellitus and seizure disorders), and 3) physical disabilities, including spina bifida, cerebral palsy and other paralytic conditions.
METHODS Study design
This was a cross-sectional study of treatment prevalence of acute and chronic conditions in Manitoba children in 1998/99, reported by geographic area and neighbourhood income. The geographic areas used are 12 regions of Manitoba, called Regional Health Authorities (RHAs), and 12 subregions of Winnipeg, Manitoba's largest city, called Winnipeg Community Areas (Winnipeg CAs). RHAs and Winnipeg CAs were ranked by the premature mortality rate (PMR), the best single measure to represent the healthiness of a population, and its need for health care services.6,7
Study population and data sources
Administrative data were obtained on children aged 0 to 19 from the Population Health Research Data Repository (PHRDR) at the University of Manitoba. These data are anonymized, encounterbased records of Manitobans' interactions with the health care system. Four databases were used: 1) registration files, 2) records of physician reimbursement, 3) records of hospitalizations, and 4) records of prescriptions dispensed in retail pharmacies.
The registration file contains a record for every individual eligible to receive insured health services, and includes the individual's birth date, gender and geographic location. Records of physician reimbursement for medical care provided are submitted under a fee-for-service arrangement, and contain information on one patient diagnosis at the 3-digit level of the ICD-9CM classification system and physician specialty. Discharge abstracts for hospital services include information on up to 16 ICD-9-CM diagnostic codes, of which the first diagnosis is the primary diagnosis responsible for the hospital stay. Prescription records are submitted by retail pharmacies for reimbursement by provincial drug insurance plans and for drug utilization review purposes. These records contain the drug's name, identification number, dosage form, and quantity dispensed, as well as the date the drug was dispensed.
The reliability and validity of the PHRDR databases have been found to be high for describing population drug use and health care utilization for specific conditions.8,9 However, physician contact and prescription use in northern Manitoba nursing stations is incompletely recorded in the health care databases. Further, care must be taken when making inferences about disease prevalence from health care utilization data. Health care contact is less frequent among children living in rural versus urban areas.10 Further, children are more likely to use prescription medications for chronic conditions than to visit a physician on an annual basis.11 Our measure of chronic conditions also included prescription drug use to minimize bias subsequent to less frequent physician contact.
The face validity of defining chronic conditions according to diagnosis or prescription data was determined by comparing the rate of children defined on this basis, with the prevalence of children with the condition in the 1996 Manitoba sample of the National Population Health Survey (NPHS), recognizing the limitations of survey estimates of disease due to small sample size and wording of questions (i.e., ever had asthma versus current asthma). As parents may not view vascular diseases as "heart conditions," two categories of cardiovascular conditions were compared with survey data: all conditions and cardiovascular conditions excluding cerebrovascular (e.g., stroke) and vascular disorders. No comparisons with the survey data were made for the Type I diabetes case definition which had been validated previously by comparison to the Diabetes Education Resource Database.12 To assess whether regional differences in chronic conditions could be real, we compared regional variation in overall health care contact and receipt of prescription drugs with regional variation in conditionspecific treatment prevalence rates.
Study measures and analyses
The 1998/99 prevalence rate of children receiving health care was determined for: 1) lower respiratory tract infections, 2) four chronic conditions (asthma, cardiovascular disease, Type 1 diabetes mellitus and seizure disorders), and 3) physical disabilities, including spina bifida, cerebral palsy and other paralytic conditions. Hospitalization for lower respiratory tract infection included a hospitalization for pneumonia, bronchiolitis and bronchitis, and in children less than 5 years old, it also included hospitalization for asthma. 13 The treatment prevalence of asthma, cardiovascular conditions and seizure disorders was defined on the basis of at least one physician visit or hospitalization for these conditions or the receipt of at least one prescription drug to treat the condition. Children with a physical disability were identified on the basis of a physician visit or hospitalization for spina bifida, cerebral palsy or paralytic conditions from birth to 1998/99.14
The denominator was the population of children residing in Manitoba as of December 31, 1998. Age-specific and ageadjusted treatment prevalence rates were determined for each RHA and Winnipeg CA, and urban and rural neighbourhood income quintiles. Rates were suppressed where cell counts were less than 5. Children were placed into neighbourhood income quintiles, RHAs, and Winnipeg CAs, according to the postal code of their place of residence. Rural and urban neighbourhood income quintiles were created from Statistics Canada Census 1996 by aggregating household income data to the census enumeration area and ranking neighbourhood income quintiles from 20% of the population residing in the lowest income neighbourhoods to 20% of the population residing in the highest income neighbourhoods.15-17
Using t-test methodology developed by Carriere and Roos,18 treatment prevalence rates for individual RHAs and Winnipeg CAs were compared, at the 99% level of confidence, to the total Manitoba child population, Winnipeg, Non-Winnipeg (all children residing outside of Winnipeg), rural south (children residing in rural regions below the 53rd parallel) and north (children residing in regions above the 53rd parallel). Visual inspections of the regional rates, ranked according to PMR (lowest to highest), were performed to provide insight into the relationship with the healthiness of the population within a region (PMR). To further assess the association with PMR, treatment prevalence rates for regions were correlated with region PMR, using Spearman's rank correlation. Trends in prevalence rates across income quintiles were assessed with the Cochran-Armitage test for trend at the 95% level of confidence.
RESULTS
Validation of chronic conditions
Age-specific asthma treatment rates fell within the 95% confidence intervals for asthma prevalence reported in the NPHS for children less than 15 years of age, indicating similarity in prevalence (Table I). The NPHS documented a higher prevalence of adolescents with asthma than that derived from health care administrative data, suggesting under-representation by health care administrative data or survey over-reporting of asthma which was no longer current.19 The treatment rates of the other conditions were similar to survey rates, but because of their low prevalence, survey rates were unreliable.
Fewer children in Northern Manitoba had health care use or received prescription drugs than children living in Winnipeg. The ratio of the prevalence of any health care for Winnipeg children (86.3%) versus northern Manitoba children (67.6%) was 1.1. The ratio of the treatment prevalence for cardiovascular conditions between these regions was similar (Winnipeg/North ratio=1.3). However, the Winnipeg-toNorth treatment prevalence ratio for asthma was 2.7.
Treatment prevalence rates
Eighty percent of Manitoba children saw a physician or were hospitalized in 1998/99 and 59% received at least one prescription drug. Defining health care contact on the basis of use of physician services, hospitalization or the receipt of a prescription drug, 83% of children received health care treatment.
1) Lower respiratory tract infection. In 1998/99, less than 1% of all children were hospitalized for a lower respiratory tract infection (LRI). The prevalence rate of hospitalization for LRI was highest in children less than one year of age (6% of infants), but declined dramatically by the age of five. The prevalence rate of LRI hospitalization in infants was highly correlated with the PMR (the healthiness) of the RHA populations (Spearman rank correlation =0.66, p<0.02). The rate in the NorMan, Burntwood and Parkland RHAs was significantly higher than the southern rural and the provincial average (Figure 1). Hospitalization for LRI was also highly correlated with the healthiness of populations in the Winnipeg CAs (Spearman rank correlation=0.61, p<0.04) (Figure 2). Infants living in the Point Douglas area were significantly more likely to be hospitalized for LRI than all Winnipeg infants combined (Figure 2). Of note, the prevalence rate of LRI hospitalization in the northern RHAs (150 per 1,000 infants) was 10-fold greater than the rate for infants living in the Winnipeg communities with the healthiest populations.
Hospitalization for LRI represents only the "tip of the iceberg" for all LRI morbidity as shown when physician contacts for LRI are combined with hospitalization rates (Figure 1). However, under-reporting of physician contacts in nursing stations makes this a less useful measure for comparisons across RHAs. Furthermore, there may be variation in LRI hospitalization by income neighbourhoods within RHAs and Winnipeg CAs. We observed increases in LRI hospitalization with decreasing neighbourhood income (Figure 3); this gradient effect was substantially steeper in rural areas (Cochran-Armitage trend test, p<0.0001).
2) Asthma. Ten percent of Manitoba's school-age children (5-19 years old) had either a physician diagnosis of asthma or a prescription for an asthma drug in 1998/99. The asthma treatment prevalence declined with age, from 11.5% in children 5-9 years to 8% in adolescents.
Asthma treatment rates were highest in Winnipeg (and Brandon in younger children), followed by southern rural areas, and then by the North (Figure 4). Among southern rural RHAs, the asthma treatment prevalence rate was significantly higher in the Interlake region than the southern rural average. Within Winnipeg, most asthma treatment rates did not differ by Winnipeg CA from the Winnipeg average, but a significantly higher rate was observed in the St. James-Assiniboine area for children 10 years of age and older.
3) Other chronic conditions. As documented for 1996/97 (Table I), the treatment prevalence for other chronic conditions in 1998/99 increased with age and was low in children less than 15 years old. On the basis of a physician visit, hospitalization or prescription drug, 1.2% of children, aged 15-19 years, had a cardiovascular condition, 0.7% had a seizure disorder, and 0.3% had Type I diabetes mellitus. In this age group, no statistically significant differences for the treatment prevalence of cardiovascular conditions, seizure disorders and type I diabetes were observed among RHAs or Winnipeg CAs. Age comparisons of the treatment prevalence for cardiovascular conditions (most frequent diagnosis was hypertension) by neighbourhood income documented the beginnings of a graded association with income (Figure 5). Higher cardiovascular condition rates were observed with decreases in neighbourhood income in urban areas among older children [Cochran-Armitage trend test for 5-9 year olds (NS), for 10-14 year olds (p<0.05), for 15-19 year olds (p<0.10)].
4) Physical disability (spina bifida, cerebral palsy and other paralytic conditions). In 1998/99, less than 1% of children were found to have spina bifida, cerebral palsy or paralytic conditions, determined on the basis of their health care utilization records from birth. Figure 6 shows age-standardized disability rates by Winnipeg, Brandon, and northern and southern Manitoba. Winnipeg and northern regions were more likely to have children with these disabilities, but the only statistically significant difference was between northern versus southern rural rates of cerebral palsy/paralytic conditions.
DISCUSSION
Over 80% of Manitoba children received health care in 1998/99. However, health care for the acute and chronic conditions selected for study was not common. Hospitalization of children for respiratory conditions has declined over the past two decades;" less than 1% of all Manitoba children were hospitalized for LRI. However, LRI hospitalization rates were highest in infants and are a significant cause of mortality in this age group.21 Infants living in low-income regions or the least healthy regions in Manitoba, as indicated by the PMR, were much more likely to be hospitalized for LRI. Similarly, higher LRI hospitalization rates among young children have been reported in US geographic areas characterized by higher rates of poverty.13 A variety of risk factors for LRI, such as household crowding, smoking and lower breastfeeding rates, have been associated with living in a low-income household.22 Manitoba regions with the highest LRI hospitalization rates also had the highest rates of these risk factors.23
Asthma was the most common chronic condition in childhood. On the basis of physician diagnosis or prescription use for asthma, 10% of school-age children had asthma in 1998/99, similar to the prevalence reported by the recent Canadian Student Lung Health Survey.11 Not all children with asthma symptoms continue to have asthma as they grow older.19 In our study, the treatment prevalence for asthma declined with age, compatible with this "growing out of asthma" phenomenon. Much lower asthma treatment rates were observed in northern Manitoba. While this finding may be a function of missing data on physician visits and prescriptions dispensed in nursing stations, relative differences in asthma treatment prevalence between Winnipeg and northern Manitoba were in excess of differences for health care contact between the two regions. Further, an asthma treatment definition which included prescription drug use potentially diminished bias from urban-rural differences in physician contact.10,11 Our observations of lower asthma treatment rates in northern and southern rural regions do have some biological plausibility. First, a lower prevalence of asthma has been reported in Aboriginal children living in rural Manitoba and Australia.24,25 Second is the cleanliness hypothesis which has been proposed to explain geographical differences in asthma prevalence.26 The hypothesis states that children exposed to "germs" at an earlier age are much less likely to get asthma. We observed that northern and southern regions were also more likely than Winnipeg to have infants with lower respiratory tract infections.
Other chronic conditions in childhood were much less common than asthma, and their prevalence increased with age.27 In our research, treatment rates for cardiovascular conditions, Type I diabetes and seizure disorders approached 1% in adolescents and there were no regional differences in the distribution of these conditions. We reported only on the prevalence of Type I diabetes in children, but there are regional differences in the prevalence of Type II diabetes, a disease which is reaching epidemic proportions in young Aboriginals.28 Higher cardiovascular condition rates were observed with decreases in neighbourhood income in urban areas. This phenomenon has been documented by others, and has been attributed to the differential acquisition in children of risk factors, such as sedentary lifestyle and smoking, by household income.29
Physical disability can be the outcome of the prenatal period or of events later in childhood secondary to injury. The prevalence of physical disability was higher in the North, which we postulate is the outcome of higher rates of injury.30 These disabilities cause a major interference with the activities of these children, significant consumption of health care services, and a high level of dependence on families for personal care.31
In summary, a minority of Manitoba children suffer from chronic and serious acute health problems in childhood, but the burden of illness is not evenly distributed among children. Acute conditions such as respiratory tract infections, and physical disability are more common in Northern Manitoba children, but asthma is more common in urban children. Our validity assessments suggest that these regional differences are real. However, we have presented data on physical health in Manitoba children, recognizing that physical health represents only one dimension of child health. Other dimensions, such as mental and emotional health, are equally as important and may be more pervasive in children.
[Reference]
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7. Eyles J, Birch S, Chambers S, Hurley J, Hutchison B. A needs-based methodology for allocating health care resources in Ontario: Development and an application. Soc Sci Med 1991;33(4):489-500.
8. Kozyrskyj A, Mustard CA. Validation of an electronic, population-based prescription database. Ann Pharmacother 1998;32:1152-57.
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12. Blanchard J, Dean H, Anderson K, Wajda A, Ludwig S, Depew N. Incidence and prevalence of diabetes in children aged 0-14 years in Manitoba, Canada, 1985-1993. Diabetes Care 1997;20:51215.
13. McConnochie KM, Roghmann KJ, Liptak GS. Hospitalization for lower respiratory tract illness in infants: Variation in rates among counties in New York State and areas within Monroe County.J Pediatr 1995;126:220-29.
14. Palfrey JS, Singer JD, Walker DK, Butler JA. Early identification of children's special needs: A study in five metropolitan communities. JPediatr 1987;111:651-59.
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17. Mustard CA, Derksen S, Berthelot J-M, Wolfson W. Assessing ecologic proxies for household income: A comparison of household and neighbourhood level income measures in the study of population health status. Health and Place 1999;5:157-71.
18. Carriere KC, Roos LL. A method of comparison for standardized rates of low-incidence events. Med Care 1997;35 (1):57-69.
19. Barbee RA, Murphy S. The natural history of asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1998;102:S65572.
20. Hodge MJ, Dougherty GE, Pless IB. Pediatric mortality and hospital use in Canada and the United States, 1971 through 1987. Am J Public Health 1995;85:1276-79.
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23. Martens PJ, Derksen S. A matter of life and death for Manitoba's children: An overview of birth rates and mortality rates. Can J Public Health 2002;93(Suppl. 2):521-S26.
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25. Whybourne AM, Lesnikowski CL, Ruben AR, Walker AC. Low rates of hospitalization for asthma among Aboriginal children compared to nonAboriginal children of the Top End of the Northern Territory. J Paediatr Child Health 1999;35:438-41.
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29. Leino M, Porkka KV, Raitakari OT, Laitinen S, Taimela S, Viikari JS. Influence of parental occupation on coronary heart disease risk factors in children. The Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. IntJEpidemiol 1996;25:1189-95.
30. MacKenzie EJ. Epidemiology of injuries: Current trends and future challenges. Epidemiol Rev 2000;22(1):112-19.
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[Reference]
RESUME
[Reference]
Contexte : Il existe de nombreuses mesures de l'etat de sante des enfants; elles vont des evaluations de la sante physique et mentale aux continuums de I'activite physique. On presence ici la repartition regionale des troubles physiques chez les enfants manitobains.
Methode : A l'aide des donnees representatives du Manitoba sur la prescription cle medicaments et les soins de sante (1998-1999), nous avons determine la prevalence des enfants presentant des infections des voies respiratoires inferieures, quatre etats chroniques (asthme, maladie cardiovasculaire, diabete de type 1, troubles epileptiques) ou des deficiences physiques comme le spina-bifida et l'infirmite motrice cerebrale dans 12 ORS et 12 CR cle Winnipeg, classes selon une mesure de l'etat de sante de la population (le TMP). Les taux de prescription de medicaments sur ordonnance sont egalement presentes par quintile de revenu des quartiers (selon les donnees du recensement).
[Reference]
Resultats: Le plus haut taux d'hospitalisation pour infection des voles respiratoires inferieures a ete mesure chez les nourrissons (6 %) et augmentait avec les diminutions successives du revenu du quartier ou de I'etat de sante de la population de la sous-region. D'apres les diagnostics des medecins et les medicaments prescrits contre I'asthme, 10 % des enfants d'Age scolaire etaient asthmatiques. Les taux de traitement de I'asthme dans le Nord du Manitoba etaient sensiblement plus faibles qu'a Winnipeg. Les taux de traitement des maladies card iovascu lai res, du diabete de type 1 et des troubles epileptiques atteignaient pres de 1 % chez les adolescents; on n'observe aucun ecart regional dans la repartition de ces troubles. C'est dans le Nord du Manitoba que la prevalence des deficiences physiques etait la plus elevee.
Conclusion: Une minorite d'enfants manitobains souffre de problemes de sante chroniques et graves durant l'enfance, mais le fardeau de la maladie West pas equitablement reparti entre les enfants.
[Author Affiliation]
1. Manitoba Centre for Health Policy, Department of Community Health Sciences, Faculty ot Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB
2. Department Pediatrics and Child Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Manitoba
[Author Affiliation]
Correspondence: Dr. Anita Kozyrskyj, Manitoba Centre for Health Policy, Department ot Community Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Manitoba, 4th Floor Brodie Centre, Room 408 727 McDermot Avenue, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3P5. The full report "Assessing the Health of Children in Manitoba: A Population-Based Study" on which this article is based is available from the Manitoba Centre for Health Policy at the above address or online at: http://www.u manitoba.ca/centres/mchp/reports.htm
Sources of support: This work was supported as part of a project on Child Health in Manitoba, one of several projects undertaken each year by the Manitoba Centre for Health Policy under contract to Manitoba Health. The results and conclusions are those of the authors and no official endorsement by Manitoba Health was intended or should be inferred.
Germany's Justice Ministry on Wednesday announced plans to salvage parts of a law governing Volkswagen AG that was ruled illegal by a European Union court _ notably a provision that allows worker representatives to block the relocation of production.
The European Court of Justice last year struck down the nearly 50-year-old "VW law," whose main effect was to protect Europe's largest automaker by sales from a hostile takeover.
The Justice Ministry stressed that it would comply with the ruling, in particular scrapping a provision that capped shareholders' voting rights at 20 percent, whatever the size of their holding.
However, "we want to preserve the proven VW law as far as possible and only nullify the provisions that were declared to be against European law," Justice Minister Brigitte Zypries said in a statement.
She said that she planned to keep a provision under which Wolfsburg-based Volkswagen's supervisory board must endorse decisions to build or move production sites with a two-thirds majority. Half of the board members are employee representatives.
Zypries said it was "good news for all employees" that decisions on production sites "will be made in Germany in future as well _ and, as previously, only with the approval of employee representatives."
She described the proposal as "a positive signal" both for Volkswagen's home state of Lower Saxony _ the company's second-biggest shareholder after luxury automaker Porsche _ and for Germany as a whole.
The Justice Ministry said it also planned to keep a provision under which "significant decisions" require the approval of shareholders representing 80 percent of Volkswagen's stock, plus one share, at the annual general meeting.
That would mean that a shareholder with 20 percent of the stock would continue to hold a blocking minority. Lower Saxony holds just over 20 percent, and state governor Christian Wulff has ruled out selling any of the stake.
Porsche has built up a 31 percent stake in Volkswagen, and the European court's ruling on the VW law fueled already rampant speculation that it would move to take a majority in the company.
Porsche, however, has been biding its time. CEO Wendelin Wiedeking said in November that there was no decision so far to increase the stake and that "we are not under time pressure."
Zypries said her center-left Social Democrats will now consult with their coalition partners, the conservative Christian Democrats of Chancellor Angela Merkel, before introducing the revised Volkswagen law to parliament.
Germany's DSW shareholders' rights group criticized the plan. Spokesman Juergen Kurz described the VW law as an "anachronism" that should be scrapped altogether.
"Why should there be special rights for VW? No one can explain why Volkswagen should be different from Daimler or BMW," two other German automakers, Kurz said.
Volkswagen shares were up nearly 1.9 percent at euro153.58 (US$228.34), while Frankfurt's DAX index of blue-chip stocks was down 0.7 percent overall.
Summaries Sunday from the 24th round of the Spanish first-division football league (home teams listed first):
Valladolid 1, Malaga 3
Malaga: Albert Luque (7), Antonio Galdeano (penalty, 29), Ignacio Perez (88).
Valladolid: Pedro Oldoni (88).
Halftime: 0-2.
Attendance: 15,000.
Recreativo Huelva 1, Almeria 1
Recreativo Huelva: Javier Camunas (59).
Almeria: Alvaro Negredo (penalty, 75).
Halftime: 0-0.
Attendance: 15,689.
Mallorca 1, Racing Santander 0
Mallorca: Jose Jurado (88).
Halftime: 0-0.
Attendance: 17,000.
Osasuna 2, Numancia 0
Osasuna: Jaroslav Plasil (2), Masoud Shojaei (35).
Halftime: 2-0.
Attendance: 18,703.
Getafe 1, Athletic Bilbao 1
Getafe: Roberto Soldado (16).
Athletic Bilbao: Fernando Llorente (41).
Halftime: 1-1.
Attendance: 9,000.
Deportivo La Coruna 1, Valencia 1
Deportivo La Coruna: Adrian "Piscu" Lopez (79).
Valencia: David Villa (25).
Halftime: 0-1.
Attendance: 16,000.
A Street supermarket will no longer sell cut flowers which arereaching the end of their shelf-life.
Instead of selling them to customers at a discounted price,Sainsbury's in Street will donate the bouquets to Southlawnsresidential care home in Street.
The store has recently introduced this policy to help the localcommunity and also reduce the amount of wastage produced by thecompany as a whole.
Ray Dawson, store manager said: "This is a great scheme.
"Not only does it bring some sunshine in to people's lives byproviding them with a bright bunch of flowers but it also reduceswastage.
"I am really glad we are able to support Southlawns residentialcare home and hope that we can continue to work with them in thefuture."
Lt. Gov. hopeful Pat Quinn Sunday announced he has launched a lobbying campaign in hopes of convincing senators to pass the Illinois Military Family Relief Fund checkoff law by the end of this month.
Standing next to the Eternal Flame in the Daley Plaza where he was joined by the spouses of Illinois soldiers who are guarding Taliban and Al-Qaida prisoners in Cuba, Quinn said these mothers need these funds to help make ends meet until their husbands return.
He said in the past week, 1700 Illinois Army National Guard soldiers were called to active duty to fight terrorism in one of the largest mobilizations since the Korean War.
Saying that the Illinois Military Family Relief Fund bill has been unanimously approved by the Illinois House, Quinn said the senate needs to follow suit.
The bill, he said, needs to be passed in the senate because it would establish a checkoff box on state income tax returns allowing taxpayers to voluntarily contribute to a trust fund established to provide financial assistance to the families of hundreds of Illinois military men and women who have been called to duty.
It would be a blessing to Brenda Robinzine, who is pregnant and is expecting a baby in April and Mary Beth Beirsdorf, a mother of three all under the age of six.
When the bill is approved, it would provide emergency financial grants to the families of Illinois Guard members and reservists who are suddenly called to duty.
Article copyright REAL TIMES Inc.
Joseph Cardinal Bernardin observes his 25th anniversary as aRoman Catholic bishop this Sunday, an occasion for celebration notonly within his church, but in the larger Chicago area community aswell.
Since 1982, when he became head of the Chicago archdiocese,Cardinal Bernardin's pastoral stewardship through troubled times andhis contribution to our civic life have shone with spirituality andcompassion.
Our warm good wishes to him on this anniversary.
Abstract
We examined the potential moderating effect of negative affectivity in the relation between perceptions of procedural justice and job satisfaction in two studies. In the first study, we conducted a cross-sectional survey of 232 individuals working for a Canadian public-sector organization that was being partially privatized. In the second study, we conducted a two-wave panel study of 173 university students participating in a co-operative education work term. In both studies, we found that the relation between procedural justice and job satisfaction was stronger for those who were low in negative affectivity than for those who were high in negative affectivity. These findings support the notion that employee dispositions influence the manner in which organizational factors are perceived. In addition, these findings suggest that fair procedures do not uniformly result in positive organizational outcomes (i.e., job satisfaction).
R�sum�
Nous nous sommes livr�s � deux �tudes en vue d'examiner l'effet mod�rateur potentiel de l'affectivit� n�gative sur la relation entre les perceptions de justice proc�durale et la satisfaction professionnelle. La premi�re �tude a consist� d'une enqu�te transversale men�e aupr�s de 232 personnes au service d'un organisme public canadien en voie d'�tre en partie privatis�. Dans le cadre de la seconde, nous avons tenu un panel � deux volets compos� de 163 �tudiants d'universit� qui effectuaient un stage professionnel comme condition d'un programme d'alternance travail-�tudes. Les r�sultats des deux �tudes nous ont amen�s � constater que le rapport entre la justice proc�durale et la satisfaction professionnelle �tait plus forte chez ceux dont l'affectivit� n�gative �tait faible. Nos constatations tendent � confirmer que la disposition de l'employ� influence sa perception des facteurs organisationnels. De plus, elles laissent entendre que des proc�dures �quitables ne conduisent pas � tout coup � des aboutissements organisationnels positifs (comme la satisfaction professionnelle).
A growing body of research demonstrates the importance of employees' perceptions of fair treatment for predicting a number of their work attitudes and behaviours. For instance, justice perceptions have been linked to such outcomes as organizational commitment, organizational citizenship behaviour, and trust in management (for some recent reviews, see Colquitt, Conlon, Wesson, Porter, & Ng, 2001; Cropanzano, Byrne, Bobocel, & Rupp, 2001). Due to the longstanding interest in understanding the determinants of job satisfaction within the broader field of I/O psychology, the link between justice perceptions and job satisfaction has perhaps been examined most frequently. The results from numerous studies indicate that the more employees perceive their workplace as fair, the more likely they are to be satisfied with their jobs (e.g., Alexander & Ruderman, 1987; Folger & Konovsky, 1989; Kidwell & Bennett, 1994; Masterson, Lewis, Goldman, & Taylor, 2000; Mossholder, Bennett, & Martin, 1998; Randall & Mueller, 1995).
Despite strong evidence for the impact of procedural justice perceptions on job satisfaction, research (e.g., Staw, Bell, & Clausen, 1986; Staw & Ross, 1985) ,� also supports the notion that dispositional factors influence job attitudes. As an example, research attention has focused on negative affectivity (NA: Watson & Clark, 1984), which is an individual's predisposition to experience aversive emotional states. These aversive emotional states result in the individual perceiving the environment (including the work environment) in negative terms, thereby resulting in low job satisfaction (Levin & Stokes, 1989; Moyle, 1995). Recent meta-analytic work (Connolly & Viswesvaran, 2000) supports the contention that NA is related to job satisfaction and it also appears that these dispositional effects are consistent over time (Watson & Slack, 1993).
Because emotional states influence individuals' perceptions of their work environment, it might also be argued that NA might interact with aspects of the work environment to influence attitudinal outcomes. Levin and Stokes (1989) noted that, "High levels of NA are associated with a type of cognitive bias through which people approach and evaluate their life experiences. This affective tendency and cognitive style may influence how people experience and evaluate their jobs" (p. 753). Because high NA individuals tend to focus more on negative cues in the environment, positive aspects of the job might have less influence on their job attitudes. The purpose of this research is to examine the possibility that NA moderates the relations between procedural justice perceptions and job satisfaction. In the following sections, we will discuss research examining perceptions of justice in the prediction of job satisfaction, dispositional factors that influence job satisfaction (with an emphasis on NA), as well as the combined and interactive effects of dispositional and situational on job satisfaction. Finally, we describe two studies we conducted to examine the moderating effect of NA on relations between perceptions of procedural justice and job satisfaction.
Justice as a Predictor of Job Satisfaction
The concept of fairness is multifaceted. Early justice research (e.g., Adams, 1963) focused on understanding people's perceptions of, and reactions to, the fairness of the distribution of outcomes (i.e., the study of distributive justice; see for a review, Greenberg & Cohen, 1982). Since the 1970s, researchers have examined the role of people's perceptions of procedural justice, that is, the fairness of the process used to determine outcome distributions (e.g., Leventhal, 1980; Lind & Tyler, 1988; Thibaut & Walker, 1975). More recently, the study of procedural justice has led to recognition of the importance of people's perceptions of the fairness of the interpersonal treatment that they receive from authorities who are implementing decision procedures, often referred to as the study of interactional justice (e.g., Bies & Moag, 1986).
Whereas the distinction between the concepts of procedural and interactional justice is relatively recent and, therefore, still debated (for reviews, see Bies, 2001; Bobocel & Holmvall, 2001), the distinction between distributive and procedural justice is longer standing. There is now a large volume of research that demonstrates the importance of both procedural and distributive justice perceptions for a number of work attitudes and behaviours (e.g., Folger & Greenberg, 1985; Lind & Tyler, 1988). The evidence pertaining to job satisfaction suggests that employees' perceptions of procedural justice are more strongly associated with job satisfaction than are perceptions of distributive justice (e.g., Alexander & Ruderman, 1987; Folger & Konovsky 1989; Scandura, 1997). As such, the primary focus of the present research is on the link between perceived procedural justice and job satisfaction.
In a seminal paper, Leventhal (1980) advanced the theoretical development of the concept of procedural justice by identifying six rules that people use to assess the fairness of allocation procedures. Leventhal suggested that allocation of procedures that: 1) incorporate the use of accurate data, 2) allow for input from representatives of the potential resource recipients, 3) are consistently applied to all potential resource recipients, 4) suppress any potential bias of decision makers, 5) allow for questionable allocative decisions to be reviewed, and 6) adhere to current ethical standards, will tend to be perceived as more procedurally fair than those that do not.
Using these rules as a guideline, it is thus conceivable that organizations can develop decision-making procedures that would, in general, be perceived as fair. Although few studies have attempted to validate Leventhal's criteria directly, those that have done so are generally supportive (e.g., Greenberg, 1986). Moreover, organizational researchers have commonly used the Leventhal criteria as the conceptual basis for item development in research designed to measure employee perceptions of procedural fairness in organizations (e.g., Colquitt, 2001; Moorman, 1991) as well as for the development of experimental manipulations in laboratory research (see for reviews Brockner & Wiesenfeld, 1996; Cropanzano & Greenberg, 1997).'
A practical implication of this research is that organizations can influence the satisfaction of their employees by ensuring that fair procedures are implemented when allocating rewards and resources. Although procedural justice perceptions have been established as an important predictor of job satisfaction, research has suggested that satisfaction might also have a dispositional component. In the next section, we briefly discuss research linking dispositional affect to job satisfaction.
Dispositional Predictors of Job Satisfaction
Research by Staw and his colleagues (Staw & Ross, 1985; Staw et al., 1986) has examined the impact of dispositions on job satisfaction. Staw and Ross examined the correlation between job satisfaction at two points in time among individuals who changed both jobs and occupations between 1969 and 1971. These authors found a correlation of .33 between measures of job satisfaction taken at these two points in time. In a longitudinal study that spanned nearly 50 years, Staw et al. demonstrated that measures of affective disposition taken at an early age could predict job satisfaction over an extended period of time. Based on their findings, Staw and his colleagues cautioned organizations against the use of situationally based interventions such as job enrichment and job design as a means of influencing job satisfaction. Such interventions do not take into account dispositional factors that influence job satisfaction.
A dispositional variable that has garnered considerable research attention in recent years is negative affectivity (NA). NA is described as a stable trait in individuals that influences how they perceive the world around them (Watson & Clark, 1984). People high in NA tend to experience aversive emotional states and focus on the negative aspects of events. Given that jobs tend to have both positive and negative qualities, high NA individuals are expected to focus more on the negative qualities. Not surprisingly, then, researchers have found NA to be negatively related to job satisfaction in several studies (e.g., Brief, Butcher, & Roberson, 1995; Cropanzano, James, & Konovsky, 1993; Levin & Stokes, 1989; Watson & Clark). More recently, Connolly and Viswesvaran (2000) reported a mean corrected correlation between NA and job satisfaction of -.33 across 27 studies. These authors concluded that organizations might have less ability to influence the job satisfaction of their employees than originally believed. A further implication of the importance of affect in determining job satisfaction is that organizational interventions designed to increase satisfaction might have less impact on employees with a particular affective disposition. We turn to a discussion of the potential interactive effects of NA and procedural justice on job satisfaction in the following section.
Interactive Effects of Situational and Dispositional Factors on Job Attitudes
In recent years, researchers have examined the influence on job attitudes of both situation- and person-based factors. In a 10-year longitudinal study of U.S. civil service employees, Steel and Rentsch (1997) found support for the notion that both situational and dispositional factors contributed to the development of work attitudes. These authors found evidence of attitudinal stability over the 10-year period covered in the study. In addition, they found that job characteristics accounted for variance in job satisfaction beyond that accounted for by attitudinal stability. Therefore, situational and dispositional factors appear to contribute unique variance to job attitudes.
Recent evidence also supports the notion that situational and dispositional factors interact with one another to predict job attitudes. In particular, Witt and his colleagues (Witt, 1991; Witt & Broach, 1993) provided direct evidence for the idea that disposition can moderate the relation between procedural justice perceptions and employee satisfaction. Witt and Broach, for example, found that exchange ideology moderated the procedural justice-satisfaction relation. Exchange ideology is described as an individual difference variable that affects employees' responses to the perception that their organization treats them fairly. Individuals with a strong exchange ideology work hard when their organizations treat them well, but not when they are treated poorly. In contrast, individuals with a weak exchange ideology work hard irrespective of how they are treated by their organizations. Witt and Broach found that procedural justice and satisfaction with a training program were positively related for individuals with a strong exchange ideology, but unrelated for individuals with a weak exchange ideology.
Several studies have examined the moderating role of NA in relations between aspects of the job and satisfaction. In a study of nursing employees, Agho (1993) found that NA moderated the impact of promotional opportunities on job satisfaction. Specifically, the impact of promotional opportunities on job satisfaction was less pronounced for high NA individuals than for low NA employees. More recently, Brief et al. (1995) examined the role of NA as a moderator of relations between situational factors and job satisfaction. These authors used a positive mood-inducing event (i.e., providing study participants with cookies) prior to measuring job satisfaction. Previous research (Kraiger, Billings, & Isen, 1989) demonstrated that individuals in whom positive moods were induced by being shown humorous films reported higher task satisfaction than individuals in whom positive moods were not induced. Brief et al. found that positive mood-inducing events had less of an impact on job satisfaction for high NA individuals than they did on low NA individuals.
Brief et al. (1995) advanced several potential explanations for their findings. First, high NA individuals might be less sensitive to positive events than are low NA individuals. second, high NA people might react less positively to positive events. Third, the effects of positive events might wear off more quickly for high NA individuals (cf. Lam, Yik, & Schaubroeck, 2002). Finally, high NA individuals might not be as affected by mood when making judgments.
The Present Research
In the current research, we examined the potential moderating effect of NA, a dispositional variable, on the relation between perceptions of procedural justice and job satisfaction. As noted above, both NA (cf. Connolly & Viswesvaran, 2000) and procedural justice (cf. Colquitt et al., 2001) have well-established relations with job satisfaction. Consequently, we expected to find similar results in our research. That is, we hypothesized that:
Hypothesis 1: NA will be negatively related to job satisfaction, and
Hypothesis 2: Procedural justice perceptions will be positively related to job satisfaction.
However, based on research by Witt and Broach (1993) in which a dispositional variable (i.e., exchange ideology) moderated the procedural justice-employee satisfaction relation, and the results presented by Agho (1993) and Brief et al. (1995) in which NA moderated the impact of aspects of the job or work environment on job satisfaction, we also hypothesized that:
Hypothesis 3: NA will moderate the relations between procedural justice and job satisfaction such that the relations will be weaker among high NA individuals than among low NA individuals.
To date, few studies have examined the role of NA as a moderator of justice effects. Hochwarter, Amason, and Harrison (1995) found that NA moderated the relations between perceived inequity and turnover intentions. In this instance, the relations between these variables were weaker for high NA individuals than for low NA individuals. Thus, low NA individuals were more likely to be influenced by unfair treatment when developing turnover intentions than are high NA individuals. More recently, Skarlicki, Folger, and Tesluk (1999) examined the roles of NA and agreeableness as moderators of the justice perception-organizational retaliatory behaviour (ORB) relation, which was documented in their earlier research (Skarlicki & Folger, 1997). In particular, they examined the role of the personality variables as moderators of a three-way interaction between distributive, procedural, and interactional justice on retaliatory behaviour (as rated by peers). The researchers found both NA and agreeableness to moderate one of the four higher-order justice interactions test involving NA, namely the Distributive x Interactional justice interaction. As they state, "For low-NA individuals, the interaction between distributive and interactional justice was not a significant predictor of ORB. In contrast, when NA was high, the combination of low interactional and low distributive justice was associated with ORB" (p. 103). Skarlicki et al.'s (1999) findings imply that those who tend to see things negatively (high NA) were more likely than those who do not (low NA) to react to a negative situation (i.e., low distributive and interactional justice) with a negative behaviour (i.e., ORB). Following similar logic, we predicted that, because of their tendency to view things more negatively or attend to things that are more negative, high NA individuals are less likely than low NA individuals to react positively to fair procedures.
Skarlicki et al.'s (1999) data are clearly consistent with the notion that NA may be an important moderator of justice effects. Our research elaborates and extends this initial line of work in two primary ways. First, our first study differs from most studies (including Skarlicki et al.) that examine justice effects in that we assessed perceptions of procedural fairness before participants knew the final outcome of the decision process ( see Method for more details). In most of the previous research examining the role of justice perceptions on organizational variables, respondents are.asked to rate the fairness of decision procedures and outcomes with past events in mind (i.e., after the outcomes are known). In contrast, in our first study, we measured perceptions of procedural fairness of an organizational change that was ongoing, and hence the final outcome was unknown. Thus, one could argue that our measure of procedural justice was more "pure" in that it is not confounded by participants' knowledge of the actual outcome. On the basis of recent experimental research by Van den Bos and his colleagues, which demonstrated that the effects of procedural justice may be particularly strong when information about outcomes is not available (Van den Bos, Lind, Vermunt, & Wilke, 1997), it was conceivable that employees' perceptions of procedural justice would have a particularly strong influence on their job satisfaction. For the present purposes, then, we were interested in examining the possible moderating role of NA in the relation between employees' perceptions of procedural justice and their job satisfaction, under conditions where they do not yet know the outcome of the decision process. second, we believe that there is utility in extending the initial findings regarding the potential moderating role of NA in justice effects reported by Skarlicki et al. given that a) they measured NA one year after they measured the other variables, and b) they examined the effects on a different criterion variable (i.e., peer reports of employee organizational retaliatory behaviour vs. work attitudes).
Study 1
Method
Participants and Setting
Participants were 232 (166 men and 66 women) employees of a regional branch of the Air Navigation System (ANS) of Transport Canada (a Canadian governmental agency) who completed questionnaires as part of a larger study on reorganization. The average age of these employees was between 31 and 35 years (because responses were made on a computer readable sheet, age was a categorical variable defined in 5-year increments), and they had been with the organization for an average of 12 years. Of those who completed questionnaires, 70% had some postsecondary education, 78% were married, and 30% were in supervisory positions.
Data were collected almost a year after it was announced that a portion of the organization was to be privatized, but before the privatization occurred. The organization established implementation teams consisting of representatives of both management and employees whose mandates were to conduct some planning, make employee assignments, and provide information to employees. During this time, many decisions concerning the status of the affected employees were being made. The single most important decision that would affect the study participants was whether their jobs would be assigned to the new entity (which would eventually be called NavCan), or remain with Transport Canada. The consequence of the assignment of jobs and individuals to the new entity would have many important residual implications for those employees assigned to NavCan, such as pension portability and whether employees would receive severance pay upon being released by the Canadian Government to NavCan. Interviews conducted by the second author with members of the regional implementation team, an examination of archival sources, and discussions with a focus group of employees affected by the changes suggested that the policies guiding the change (more specifically, the manner in which jobs were assigned to the new entity) followed most of Leventhal's (1980) procedural justice rules.
A consistent set of rules was provided by a policy manual on how or whether jobs were to be assigned to the new entity because these assignments were based upon the incumbents' roles in the organization. For example, air traffic controllers by definition dedicated 100% of their time to the ANS, the part of the organization to be privatized. However, support staff such as human resources and finance dedicated differential amounts of time directly to ANS. The organization went to great lengths to gather accurate information regarding the role of each incumbent's position in the ANS. Information was requested from and supplied by supervisors and incumbents and an appeal process was established so that job assignments could be reconsidered. Although most participants knew the outcome of the decision process in terms of job assignment, they did not know whether the impact would be positive or negative on an individual basis.
Because all the study variables were self-report and collected at a single point in time, we were concerned with the potential effects of common method variance on our findings (cf. Williams & Brown, 1994). Although not ideal, one potential means of assessing the extent to which common method variance is present among a set of variables is to include at least two scales that are theoretically unrelated to each other in the questionnaire so that there is an a priori justification for predicting a zero correlation (Lindell & Whitney, 2001). Lindell and Brandt (2000) argued that the smallest correlation among a set of manifest variables provides a reasonable estimate for the amount of common method variance that is present among these variables. As Study 1 was part of a larger examination of employee attitudes in response to the privatization process, we also included measures of affective and continuance organizational commitment (Meyer & Alien, 1991, 1997). Meyer and his colleagues (Meyer & Alien; Meyer & Herscovitch, 2001) suggested that commitment to an organization might result from different mind-sets whereby affective commitment reflects a desire to remain with the organization and continuance commitment reflects recognition of the need to remain with the organization. A recent meta-analysis (Meyer, Stanley, Herscovitch, & Topolnytsky, 2002) reported that the correlation between these two components of commitment is near zero. Therefore, we examined the relations between affective and continuance commitment in Study 1 as a proxy for common method variance.
Measures
Responses to all the following multi-item scales were averaged to form composite variables.
Negative affectivity. We used Levin and Stokes' (1989) 21-item measure of negative affectivity. Responses were made on a 5-point scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree). Coefficient alpha for this scale was .85.
Procedural justice. We measured employees' perceptions of the fairness of the decision-making procedures used to undertake privatization of the organization using an 18-item scale adapted from previous research (Bruning, Keup, & Cooper, 1995). Similar to measures developed by other researchers (e.g., Folger & Konovsky, 1989; Moorman, 1991), this scale tapped Leventhal's (1980) six procedural justice criteria outlined earlier. Two example items are: "Senior management based the assignment of job functions on accurate data" and "Senior management allowed employee requests for reconsideration of new job assignments." Responses were made on a 5-point scale (1 = not at all; 5 = very much). Coefficient alpha for this scale was .94.2
Job satisfaction. We used the 20-item short form of the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Weiss, Davis, England, & Lofquist, 1967) to assess employees' satisfaction with their current job. Responses to the items were made on a 5-point scale (1 = very dissatisfied; 5 = very satisfied). Coefficient alpha for this measure was .92.
Organizational commitment. We assessed affective and continuance commitment with Meyer, Alien, and Smith's (1993) measures. Each component consists of six items for which responses were made on a 7-point scale (1 = strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree). Coefficient alphas for affective and continuance commitment were .84 and .82, respectively.
Results
To test our hypotheses, we conducted moderated multiple regression analyses with job satisfaction as the criterion measure. After controlling for tenure, job level, and salary, we entered NA and procedural justice at Step 2 followed by the product term of the two predictors at Step 3 (Cohen & Cohen, 1983). The NA and procedural justice predictor variables were centred to reduce the problems associated with multicollinearity (Aiken & West, 1991).
The means, standard deviations, and correlations among the study variables are reported in Table 1. As can be seen, the zero-order correlations of the variables of interest were all significant. Consistent with previous research, then, people who scored high on NA also tended to be less satisfied with their job, and those who perceived that the procedures used to privatize the organization were fair also tended to be more satisfied with their job. Finally, NA was negatively related to perceptions of the fairness of the privatization process.
To test the interaction hypothesis, we regressed job satisfaction on the control variables, followed by NA and procedural justice in the second step. In the third step, we entered the interaction term of the predictor variables. Together, NA and procedural justice accounted for an additional 17% of the variance in job satisfaction beyond that accounted for by the control variables, DF(2, 201) = 22.39, p < .001. The regression coefficients for both NA (b = -.41, p < .001) and procedural justice (b = .20, p < .001) were significant. Thus, consistent with the first two hypotheses and the correlational results, NA was negatively related and procedural justice positively related to job satisfaction. In addition, each of the predictor variables contributed unique variance to the prediction of job satisfaction. When we entered the interaction term for negative affectivity and procedural justice at Step 3, the interaction term was also statistically significant (b = -.22, p < .05), accounting for an additional 2% of the variance in job satisfaction. The regression results are presented in Table 2.
To assist in the interpretation of the interaction, we conducted simple slopes tests and plotted the regression lines according to procedures outlined in Aiken and West (1991). The interaction is presented in Figure 1. As illustrated, the positive relation between perceptions of procedural justice and job satisfaction is most pronounced among people scoring low on NA3 (b = .30, p < .001). In contrast, among those who score high on NA, there is no significant relationship between the perception of procedural justice and job satisfaction (b = .09, ns). Thus, our third hypothesis was also supported in the present data.
Study 2
There are several limitations of the first study that should be noted. First, the cross-sectional nature of the study makes it impossible to draw firm conclusions about causality. However, NA has been demonstrated in previous research to be a dispositional variable that is relatively stable over time and so it is more likely that NA influences attitudes than the reverse. A related concern stems from our exclusive use of self-report measures, raising the potential for common method variance as an alternative explanation for the findings. Based on suggestions by Lindell and his colleagues (Lindell & Brandt, 2000; Lindell & Whitney, 2001), we included two theoretically unrelated scales for which the correlation was nonsignificant (i.e., affective and continuance commitment; Meyer et al., 2002). Although this indicates that common method variance was unlikely to have a significant effect on our findings, this does not rule out that possibility.
To further alleviate concerns that the results in Study 1 were a function of the cross-sectional methodology, we conducted a follow-up study in which we used a longitudinal design whereby affect was measured separately from the procedural justice and satisfaction variables. In addition, we used different measures of the study variables to address the potential that the effects found in the first study were a product of the way in which the constructs were measured.
Method
Participants and Procedure
Participants were 268 (125 men, 142 women, and one who did not indicate gender) students at a medium-sized Canadian university who were employed by a variety of organizations during a four-month cooperative education work term. Their average age was approximately 21 years. The students were enrolled in either the Honours Bachelor of Business Administration or the Honours Economics program.
Prior to beginning their placement with their coop employer, participants were invited by e-mail to complete a web-based questionnaire. This e-mail was sent via the Cooperative Education office to all potential respondents approximately three weeks prior to the end of the academic term preceding the cooperative education work term. Approximately three weeks following the end of the four-month placement, an e-mail with a link to the second questionnaire was sent to the participants. Completed second questionnaires were received from 173 individuals for a response rate of approximately 65%. No significant differences between respondents and nonrespondents were found for any of the demographic variables.
Measures
Responses to all the following multi-item scales were averaged to form composite variables.
Negative affectivity. This variable was measured at Time 1 using NA items from the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). The NA items of PANAS consist of 10 adjectives for which respondents indicate the extent that each adjective is descriptive of how they generally feel. Responses were made on a 5-point scale (1 = very slightly or not at all; 5 = extremely). Coefficient alpha for this measure was .75.
Procedural justice. We measured employee's perceptions of procedural justice using a 5-item scale. Sample items include: "To what degree did your supervisor ensure that you understood how and why decisions were made?" and "In general, how fair was the process by which decisions were made at your work term organization?" Responses were made on a 5-point scale (1 = minimally or not at all; 5 = to a very large extent, or 1 = very unfair; 5 = very fair). Coefficient alpha for this scale was .85.
Job satisfaction. We measured job satisfaction with 11 items drawn from Warr, Cook, and Wall (1979) asking participants to indicate the extent to which they were satisfied with a variety of aspects of their job (e.g., the physical work conditions, the amount of responsibility given, the amount of variety in the job), as well as an item that assessed overall satisfaction with their job. Responses to the items were made on a 7-point scale (1 = extremely dissatisfied; 7 = extremely satisfied). Coefficient alpha for this measure was .83.
Results
As was the case in Study 1, we conducted moderated multiple regression analyses with job satisfaction as the criterion measure. Because individuals who are more active in the job search process or who are better students might obtain better jobs, we controlled for number of job interviews, number of employers who ranked individuals as their first choice, and grade point average. We entered NA and procedural justice at Step 2 followed by the product term of the two predictors at Step 3 (Cohen & Cohen, 1983). Once again, the predictor variables were centred to reduce the problems associated with multicollinearity (Aiken & West, 1991).
The means, standard deviations, and correlations among the Study 2 variables are reported in Table 3. Once again, the zero-order correlations of the variables of interest were all significant with NA negatively related to job satisfaction. Consistent with previous research, then, people who scored high on NA also tended to be less satisfied with their jobs. Perceptions of procedural justice were strongly (and positively) related to job satisfaction. NA was also related to perceptions of procedural justice in the expected direction.
To test the interaction hypotheses, after entering the control variables, we regressed job satisfaction on NA and procedural justice in the second step followed by the interaction term of these variables in the third step. An examination of the standardized residuals suggested the removal of a single outlier. NA and procedural justice accounted for approximately 45% of the variance in job satisfaction beyond that accounted for by the control variables, Δf (2, 165) = 68.54, p < .001. The regression coefficient for procedural justice (b = .72, p < .001) was significant. Although the regression coefficient for NA was in the expected direction, it did not reach generally accepted levels of statistical significance. When we entered the interaction term for negative affectivity and procedural justice at Step 2, the interaction term was also statistically significant (b = -.25, p < .05), accounting for an additional 2% of the variance in job satisfaction. The regression results are presented in Table 4.
As in Study 1, to assist in the interpretation of the interaction, we conducted simple slopes analyses and plotted the regression lines according to procedures outlined in Aiken and West (1991). The interaction is presented in Figure 2. As illustrated, the positive relation between perceptions of procedural justice and job satisfaction is most pronounced among low NA3 people (b = .85, p < .001). Among those who scored high on NA, the relation between the perception of procedural justice and job satisfaction was weaker, but still significant (b = .59, p < .001). Thus, our third hypothesis concerning the interactive relations of NA and procedural justice with job satisfaction was also supported in Study 2.
General Discussion
Our findings from two independent samples provide further support for an interactionist perspective in the development of job attitudes, in that we found that employees' job satisfaction was jointly predicted by a dispositional (NA) and a situational (perceived procedural justice) variable. In addition, our findings suggest that the relation between perceptions of procedural justice and job satisfaction is influenced by individual dispositions - in this case, negative affectivity. More specifically, in Study 1 the relation between employees' perceived fairness of the privatization process and their job satisfaction was weaker for those who are high in NA than for those who are low in NA. These findings were replicated in a second, longitudinal study of cooperative work term employees.
Our data are consistent with previous research demonstrating the link between NA and job satisfaction (e.g., Brief et al., 1995; Connolly & Viswesvaran, 2000; Levin & Stokes, 1989; Watson & Clark, 1984) as well as research that suggests that fair procedures are positively related to job attitudes (e.g., Alexander & Ruderman, 1987). In addition, our findings are consistent with previous studies that suggest that dispositional factors influence the way that employees respond to various organizational events (Brief et al.; Witt & Broach, 1993). It may be important, then, for organizations to consider individual differences when developing organizational interventions. Our findings are consistent with the idea that developing fair procedures may work less well for high NA individuals than for low NA individuals in terms of enhancing positive reactions. Although one might legitimately argue that organizations can do little to influence dispositional variables, it might be useful for managers to put more concerted effort into highlighting the fairness of organizational policies and procedures so that people high in NA are more likely to attend to this aspect of their environment (Ball, Trevino, & Sims, 1994).
We can only speculate on the mechanisms that make high NA individuals less responsive to fair procedures. Several of the possible reasons articulated by Brief et al. (1995) in their study of NA as a moderator of relations between a positive mood-inducing event and job satisfaction may be just as relevant here. For example, it may be that high NA individuals are less sensitive to fair procedures or they may not use judgments of fair procedures when assessing their affective response to the job as much as do low NA individuals. This notion is consistent with the findings of Hochwarter et al. (1995) who examined the moderating effect of NA on the relationship between perceived inequity and turnover intentions. These authors predicted and found that relations between perceived inequity and turnover intentions would be stronger for low NA individuals than for high NA individuals. What is noteworthy about Hochwarter et al.'s findings in relation to ours is that high NA individuals seemed less inclined to use contextual information in the development of attitudes or intentions than did low NA individuals. This might reflect the fact that the dispositional characteristics of high NA individuals are more influential in the development of attitudes and intentions, Necowitz and Roznowski (1994) reported that NA predicted satisfaction except when the task was quite aversive. In addition, high NA individuals recalled more negative features of tasks they performed whereas low NA individuals recalled more descriptive aspects of the tasks. Therefore, it appears that high NA individuals may have a tendency to "look through the glass darkly" when making affective judgments of tasks.
Another finding of interest in our research was that NA and procedural justice were moderately negatively correlated in both samples. This finding is inconsistent with findings reported by Ball et al. (1994) and Aquino, Lewis, and Bradfield (1999) who found that NA was not related to perceptions of procedural justice. The finding is, however, consistent with the suggestion of Organ and Konovsky (1989) that there may be a dispositional component in the tendency to perceive, or at least attend to, unfairness. In other words, high NA individuals may have a somewhat greater tendency than low NA individuals to either focus on those aspects of organizational procedures that are unfair or to determine that most things are unfair.
Although conceptually we treat procedural justice as a situational variable in these studies, our measures of procedural justice were perceptual in nature. Whereas this may be somewhat problematic, the measure we used in Study 1 was designed to tap perceptions of the existence of features of the situation (i.e., the procedural criteria set out by Leventhal, 1980) rather than people's global or overall summary judgments of fairness. Nevertheless, the potential exists for dispositions to influence individual ratings of these criteria.
Post hoc simple slopes tests revealed that, as expected, procedural justice was not related to job satisfaction for high NA individuals in Study 1. However, in Study 2 procedural justice was significantly related to job satisfaction even among high NA individuals, although the relationship was weaker than for low NA respondents. This difference in findings might be accounted for by the different samples used in the two studies. In Study 2, the mean of NA was well below the midpoint indicating that the sample of cooperative education students did not have strong NA tendencies. Nevertheless, the same pattern of interaction emerged in both studies indicating that even slight NA tendencies weakened the relationship between procedural justice and job satisfaction.
As noted earlier, our Study 1 data were collected during the organizational privatization process. As such, we did not obtain typical measures of employee distributive justice or other outcome-focused ratings (e.g., instrumentality or control over decisions; Tyler & Lind, 1992) because people did not yet know the outcome of the process. We did, however, include multi-item measures to assess employees' expectations that the privatization process would ultimately yield fair outcomes and outcomes that were favourable to employees. To rule out the alternative explanation that our procedural justice findings are due instead to anticipated outcome fairness, we conducted the analyses reported in Study 1, controlling for employees' expectations regarding the outcome of the privatization. Controlling the outcome-oriented ratings had no effect on the results of the primary analysis; that is, the Procedural Justice x NA interaction remained significant with or without controlling for the outcome-oriented variables. Thus, we presented the simpler analysis in the text. Following the argument that procedural justice and distributive justice may interact in influencing work attitudes (e.g., Brockner & Wiesenfeld, 1996), we also examined whether employees' ratings of expected outcome fairness interacted with procedural justice on job satisfaction or whether there was a three-way interaction among ratings of expected outcomes, procedural justice, and NA for the Study 1 data. The expected outcome variable had no such interaction effects. Thus, whereas people's ratings of the fairness of outcomes that they have already received have been found to interact with ratings of procedural fairness on work attitudes, their ratings of expected outcome fairness did not. These preliminary findings are consistent with the idea that, in the absence of information about actual outcomes, people may be most affected by process considerations (see Van den Bos et al., 1997).
Despite its limitations, our research contributes to the growing procedural justice literature by demonstrating the additive and interactive relations between procedural justice perceptions and NA on job satisfaction. A particular contribution is that we found this interaction in two different contexts. Participants in Study 1 responded to perceived procedural justice about the specific job assignment decision, whereas Study 2 participants evaluated procedural justice more generally. Our findings also confirm previous research that suggests that fair procedures are related to increased job satisfaction. However, it appears that by focusing only on developing fair procedures, organizations may not influence the satisfaction levels of all employees. Just as Skarlicki et al. (1999) found that dispositional factors moderate the link between fair procedures and retaliatory behaviours, our findings suggest that the strength of relations between procedural justice and attitudes - specifically, job satisfaction - may vary depending on dispositional factors of individual employees. In particular, our findings highlight the need for organizations not only to ensure that fair procedures are implemented in the course of major organizational change as well as daily organizational life, but also to consider the potential influence of dispositional variables such as NA on individual reactions to organizational procedures. Indeed, extra effort might be needed to ensure that all employees clearly understand that the organization has been fair in their dealings with employees, including during any change process that is undertaken. This might, for example, involve ensuring that employees are given an opportunity to voice concerns and appeal decisions and that these options are made more salient through communications with employees.
Future research should continue to examine the unique and combined effects of person-based and situation-based variables on organizational attitudes and behaviours. Our research suggests that focusing on just one or the other provides an incomplete picture. In addition, future research might also provide us with a better idea of which individual difference variables are important sources of influence on organizations' attempts to foster positive organizational attitudes. It appears that "one size fits all" interventions will not be universally effective. Finally, as suggested by Brief et al. (1995), we need to know more about the processes by which NA affects relations between organizational events and job attitudes. A better understanding of these processes would allow organizations to develop initiatives designed to positively influence work attitudes that are tailored to the unique characteristics of its employees.
We thank Transport Canada and NavCan for their assistance in allowing us to collect the data used in Study 1. This research was supported by a grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada to the first author and a Faculty Development Fund grant from the Faculty of Administration, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, to the second author. We are also grateful to the editor and two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on earlier versions of this article.
[Reference]
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Received April 11, 2002
Revised August 12, 2003
Revised May 10, 2004
Accepted May 16, 2004
[Author Affiliation]
P. GREGORY IRVING, Wilfrid Laurier University
DANIEL R COLEMAN, University of New Brunswick
D. RAMONA BOBOCEL, University of Waterloo
[Author Affiliation]
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to P. Gregory Irving, School of Business & Economics, Wilfrid Laurier University, 75 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3C5 (E-mail: girving@wlu.ca).
